In LSC utterances often mean more than what is actually said. Generally, the target meaning goes beyond what is conveyed by the lexical and morphosyntactic units. The same utterance may contribute different meanings depending on the context where it is found. This is what is known as expressive meaning: the meaning that is conveyed but not actually said. This pragmatic enrichment derives from the conventions of the language and also from rich interaction between language and context use.
The dialogues in LSC below show an instance of pragmatic enrichment in B's answer. In the three dialogues the expression ‘I have a headache’ takes different values in each context in which it is used. While the semantic (literal) meaning is ‘to have a headache’, its use or pragmatic meaning varies in each situation. In Situation 1, A proposes to go to the cinema and B refuses the invitation by conveying that he cannot go to the cinema because he has a headache. Instead of providing a negative answer, B provides an answer that has the same effect but in an indirect way (i.e. by telling that he has a headache). In Situation 2, A asks whether B feels better and B replies that he has a headache. Instead of providing a direct answer like ‘No, I do not feel better’, B wants to implicate A so. In Situation 3, A proposes to go to bed by means of a polar question. Instead of answering ‘yes’ or ‘no’, B wants A to implicate that he does not want to go to bed because of the headache.
Situation 1:
A: let’s-go cinema? ‘Let’s go to the cinema?’
B: headache ‘I have a headache’
Situation 2:
A: feel well? ‘Do you feel better?’
B: headache ‘I have a headache’
Situation 3:
A: let’s-go bed? ‘Let’s go to bed?’
B: headache ‘I have a headache’
In an utterance like the one shown below the descriptive meaning is the regular semantic content of the corresponding syntactic unit used in this utterance. The implicated meaning is the projected meaning not conveyed by the syntactic units, but triggered in this particular case by the connective but. The use of the connective triggers an expressive meaning that ideas are usually new.
idea good, but old.
‘It is a very good idea, but it is old.’
The next example shows another type of implicated meaning. Here, the implicated meaning (i.e. John was on holidays earlier) is a necessary condition in order for the descriptive content to be true.
A: joan where? ‘Where is Joan?’
B: holidays still ‘He’s still on holidays!
Expressive meaning is also expressed through lexical items like interjections, which are not covered in this chapter. In what follows, a description of the different kinds of expressive meaning, namely conversational implicatures, conventional implicatures and presupposition, is offered.