Cardinal numerals in LIS represent a two-handed system. This means that both manual articulators can be employed to express cardinals. The numerical base of this system is 10, therefore cardinals higher than 10 are built combining the handshapes of numerals from 1 to 10 with special movement patterns. In this section, we provide a general description of the cardinal system in LIS. It is worth pointing out that a certain degree of variation is attested. For the sake of simplicity, we report the most frequent patterns observed.
In cardinals from 1 to 10, LIS signers extend the corresponding number of fingers with outward palm, as shown below. Contrary to cardinals from 11 to 19, these signs are static in that they lack movement. Cardinals from 1 to 5 are articulated with the dominant hand facing the signer’s body, whereas cardinals from 6 to 10 require the use of both hands (the non-dominant hand always realises the 5 handshape) and outward palm orientation.
Table: Cardinals from 1 to 10
Variation is attested at some degree. For cardinals from 1 to 5, some signers use an outward palm orientation.
Table: Cardinals from 1 to 5 (variant forms)
Moreover, some signers produce the cardinal one extending the thumb (handshape S), rather than the index finger (handshape G), and articulate the cardinal two extending thumb and index finger (handshape L), rather than index and middle finger (handshape V).
Cardinal 0 is usually realised with handshape F, as shown below.
zero
Cardinals from 11 to 19 display different realisations, which vary according to the geographical area. One of the most widespread patterns consists in the combination of the handshapes from 1 to 9 with a particular type of orientation change, pivoting (PHONOLOGY 1.3.2). Specifically, finger orientation repeatedly changes from radial to ulnar. Two examples are provided below.
a. thirteen
b. seventeen
Notice that in cardinals from 11 to 15 the palm has contralateral orientation, as in (a), whereas in cardinals from 16 to 19 the palm is oriented toward the signer’s body, as in (b).
Tens (20, 30, etc.) are obtained combining handshapes from 2 to 9 with finger bending. In some cases, two options are available: bending all fingers (a) or bending the index finger only (b).
a. forty (all fingers bent)
b. forty (index finger bent)
In tens from 60 onwards, finger bending involve the dominant hand only.
sixty
In the specific case of 60, another possible realisation is attested: the dominant hand can articulate the two digits sequentially (i.e. 6 and 0) with a change in palm orientation.
six^zero
‘Sixty’
In cardinals from 21 to 99 (with the exclusion of tens), LIS signers articulate the individual digits in a sequential way, as they appear in writing. For example, in the cardinal 24 signers produce two first, followed by four with a very short transition.
two^four
‘Twenty-four’
The transitional movement from one digit to the other may involve a slight ipsilateral shift in the signing space (especially when the two digits are identical, as in 33).
three^three
‘Thirty-three’
Note that in cardinals from 61 to 65, from 71 to 75, from 81 to 85, and from 91 to 95, signers usually realise an orientation change between the two digits, namely wrist rotation from prone to supine (PHONOLOGY 1.3.2). To illustrate, in cardinal 62 the dominant hand exhibits a prone orientation in six and a supine orientation in two.
six^two
‘Sixty-two’
In hundreds (100, 200, etc.), the numeral handshape is combined with an ipsilateral shift in the signing space and simultaneous finger bending.
three^hundred
‘Three hundred’
In hundreds involving two hands (600, 700, 800, and 900), the ipsilateral shift affects both hands, whereas finger bending affects the dominant hand only.
eight^hundred
‘Eight hundred’
In thousands (1000, 2000, etc.), the relevant handshape is combined with an orientation change, namely nodding from back to palm (PHONOLOGY 1.3.2). This secondary movement can be either single or repeated.
three.thousand
‘Three thousand’
In thousands articulated with two hands (6000, 7000, 8000, and 9000), the orientation change applies to both hands.
eight.thousand
‘Eight thousand’
Thousands higher than 10.000 usually require the articulation of a sign expressing the thousand amount in the end. The thousand sign is realised with a bent 5 handshape moving downward. To illustrate, we show 100.000 below.
hundred thousand
‘One hundred thousand’
To express millions, LIS employs the sign million, which is an asymmetric two-handed sign. To illustrate, we show 1.000.000 below.
one million
‘One million’
In the end, we illustrate how billions are expressed in LIS. The sign billion is realised through the 5 handshape displaying downward palm orientation, and forward linear movement. The fingers can either lack secondary movement, as in (a), or display a wiggling movement, as in (b).
a. one billion (no secondary movement)
‘One billion’
b. one billion (wiggling movement)
‘One billion’
The position of numerals vis-à-vis the noun is described in (SYNTAX 4.3.1).
Like other sign languages, LIS allows for numeral incorporation. This means that a cardinal handshape (usually from 1 to 5, in some cases from 1 to 10) can be incorporated into a sign. This sign can belong to different categories: i) pronouns, ii) nouns referring to time or iii) classifiers.
As for pronouns (LEXICON 3.7), numeral incorporation can apply to first-, second- and third-person plural pronominal forms. In the sign ix1pl^three, the dominant hand moves in a circular fashion and the path movement is close to the signer’s body: this indicates that the pronoun includes the signer and two addressees.
ix1pl^three
‘The three of us’
In ix2pl^three, the hand moves in a location far from the signer’s body and is aligned with the direction of the eye-gaze: this indicates that the pronoun includes three addressees and excludes the signer.
ix2pl^three
‘The three of you’
In ix3pl^three, the dominant hand moves in a location far from both the signer’s body and the trajectory of the eye-gaze: this indicates that the pronoun includes three individuals that are neither the signer nor the addressees.
ix3pl^three
‘The three of them’
The upper limit of numeral incorporation with pronoun signs is 5.
As for nouns referring to time, numerals can be incorporated into the signs hour, day, month, and year. To illustrate, we show below the sign month (a) and the sign month^two (b), which incorporates the cardinal handshape for 2 into the sign month.
a. month
b. month^two
‘Two months’
Numeral incorporation with the sign month is possible up to 10. Note that up to 5, incorporation affects the dominant hand only, which performs an inward arc movement. In these forms, the non-dominant hand does not move and is used as in the citation form of month. On the contrary, from 6 to 10, both hands are used to articulate the numeral handshape and they both move in an inward arc.
month.eight
‘Eight months’
In the case of the sign day, the upper limit of numeral incorporation is 5. We show below the base form of the sign (a) and an example of numeral incorporation, day^three (b). In the incorporated sign, the upward movement does not change, while the handshape reflects the relevant numeral.
a. day
b. day^three
‘Three days’
One of the variant forms for ‘year’ is realised with S handshape displaying an ipsilateralward arc movement in the neutral space (a). This sign allows for numeral incorporation from 1 to 10, as exemplified in (b) and (c).
a. year
b. year^three
‘Three years’
c. year^eight
‘Eight years’
Another possibility is to incorporate the numeral handshape into a classifier (MORPHOLOGY 5). For example, three can be incorporated into a whole-entity classifier for upright person.
CL(3): ‘upright_individuals_come’
‘Three people came to me.’
In this case, the upper limit of numeral incorporation is 5.