Pronouns and determiners in LIS are able to manually track back referents previously introduced in the discourse structure. Co-reference is realised by pointing toward those locations that were previously established and associated with the relevant referents. This cohesive device contributes to ensure reference tracking.
An example of pronominal expressions was presented above: references to gianni and maria was realised by directing pointing pronouns toward the locations in space previously associated with these two referents. In addition, an example of a demonstrative form is presented below.
book ix(dem)[proximal] ix1 read done ix(dem)[distal] not_yet
‘As for this book, I have read it, that one not yet.’
However, not only pronominal or demonstrative forms are used for reference tracking, also other linguistic strategies which are language specific. For example, LIS, as other sign languages, makes use of some linguistic devices typical of the visual-gestural channel.
One of these elements consists in handshapes classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5) which denotes an entity and adds cohesion to the discourse. Three major classes of predicative classifiers, such as entity classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5.1.1), bodypart classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5.1.2) and handle classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5.1.3) are used for representing referents which move, are being moved or can be located somewhere. In the case of predicative classifiers, the subject can be explicitly mentioned, but it can also be omitted. An example of predicative classifier which allows the omission of the object pronoun (‘him’) is reported below and highlighted in bold.
dom: dog ixa dog aCL(spread curved open 5): ‘bite’b
n-dom: person CL(G): ‘walk’b--------------------------------------------------
‘A dog bit a person who was walking by.’
In LIS, signers can also produce discourse markers with the non-dominant hand guiding the discourse and providing a conceptual landmark. These strategies are known as buoys (PRAGMATICS 2.2.3). List buoys are employed to keep a visual track of both ordered and unordered entities which are introduced into the discourse.
Buoys differ from numerals in that they are mostly realised with the fingers oriented to the ipsilateral side rather than upward. Moreover, the association between the referent and the finger is generally enhanced by moving the dominant index toward the tip of the appropriate finger of the non-dominant hand. An example of buoy is presented below.
ix1 child four half ixa male ixb female
dom:. first ix[index] sport football ix[middle] volleyball ix[ring] skating ice ix[pinky] unexpected chess
n-dom: four--------- sport football four----- volleyball four skating ice four------------------ chess
‘I have four children, half are male and half female. The first plays football, the second plays volleyball, the third ice-skates, and the fourth, unexpectedly, plays chess.’
Finally, another strategy which enhances textual cohesion in LIS is a phenomenon called dominance reversal. Such linguistic strategy permits to shift the dominance of the hand for reasons of linguistic convenience. In the second part of the sentence displayed below, the signs are produced with the non-dominant hand. In this case, the classifier for house is placed on the ipsilateral side and is realised with the dominant hand. Therefore, the signer chooses to sign the remain part of the sentence with the non-dominant hand in order to facilitate the production of the rest of the sentence. Meanwhile he keeps track of the house through the dominant hand.
dom: house exist two CL(spread curved open 5): ‘house is_at_a’----------------------
n-dom: house CL(spread curved open 5): ‘house is_at_b’ ixb poss1 man gob
‘There are two houses, one is mine. A man goes there.’